A page for LMD Students

[ath111]

Hello,everybody

Pleased to announce to you the opening of this page just for LMD students

who can meet , post threads,ask for help and offer help here.

So,dear students,this is your page.Don't hesitate to visit it

[ath111]

Some pieces of information in................................................ ......

[ath111]

Some pieces of information in the British Civ

The Industrial Revolution in Great Britain (1700- 1900)

Introduction:

During the 1700s and early 1800s, great changes took place in the lives and work of people in several parts of the world. These changes resulted from the development of industrialization. The term Industrial Revolution refers both to the changes that occurred and to the period itself.
The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain during the 1700s. It started spreading to other parts of Europe and to North America in the early 1800s. By the mid-1800s, industrialization had become widespread in western Europe and the northeastern United States.
The Industrial Revolution created an enormous increase in the production of many kinds of goods. Some of this increase in production resulted from the introduction of power-driven machinery and the development of factory organization. Before the revolution, manufacturing was done by hand or simple machines. Most people worked at home in rural areas. A few worked in shops in towns as part of associations called guilds. The Industrial Revolution eventually took manufacturing out of the home and workshop. Power-driven machines replaced handwork, and factories developed as the best way of bringing together the machines and the workers to operate them.
As the Industrial Revolution grew, private investors and financial institutions were needed to provide money for the further expansion of industrialization. Financiers and banks thus became as important as industrialists and factories in the growth of the revolution. For the first time in European history, wealthy business leaders called capitalists took over the control and organization of manufacturing.
Historians have disagreed on the significance of the Industrial Revolution. Some have emphasized that the importance of the revolution was in the great increase in the production of goods. They argue that this increase did more during the 1800s to raise peoples standard of living than all the actions of legislatures and trade unions. Other historians have stressed the negative parts of the revolution. They point to the overcrowded and unsanitary housing and the terrible working conditions created by rapid industrialization in the cities.
Some historians have even denied that the Industrial Revolution was revolutionary--that is, a period of great and sudden changes. These scholars insist that the basic elements of the Industrial Revolution can be traced back to developments in Europe hundreds of years before the 1700s.
Today, most historians agree that the Industrial Revolution was a great turning point in the history of the world. It changed the Western world from a basically rural and agricultural society to a basically urban and industrial society. Industrialization brought many material benefits, but it also created a large number of problems that still remain critical in the modern world. For example, most industrial countries face problems of air and water pollution.

[ath111]

Some pieces of information in linguistics

Contrastive Analysis

Definition

Contrastive Analysis (CA) or Contrastive linguistics is the systematic comparison of two or more ********s, with the aim of describing their similarities and differences. "In the study of foreign ******** learning, the identification of points of structural similarity and difference between two ********s" (Crystal, 1992, p. 83).
The objective of the comparison may vary:
******** comparison is of great interest in a theoretical as well as an applied
perspective. It reveals what is general and what is ******** specific and is therefore
important both for the understanding of ******** in general and for the study of the
individual ********s compared. (Johansson and Hofland 1994: 25) "Contrastive analysis was developed and practiced in the 1950s and 1960s as application of structural linguistics to ******** teaching" (Richards, Platt & Platt, 1992, p. 83). CA describes similarities and differences among two or more ********s at such levels as phonology, grammar, and semantics.

Contrastive linguistics is thus not a unified field of study. The focus may be on general or on
******** specific features. The study may be theoretical, without any immediate application,
or it may be applied, i.e. carried out for a specific purpose.
The term 'contrastive linguistics', or 'contrastive analysis', is especially associated
with applied contrastive studies advocated as a means of predicting and/or explaining
difficulties of second ******** learners with a particular mother tongue in learning a
particular target ********. In the Preface to his well-known book, Lado (1957) expresses the
rationale of the approach as follows:
The plan of the book rests on the assumption that we can predict and describe the
patterns which will cause difficulty in learning and those that will not cause difficulty.


The stars refer to the word

لغة

which seems to be forbidden in the forum

[ath111]

Some pieces of information in psycho peda

Motivation and learning

I. Definition of motivation

Any definition and discussion is complicated since this concept is composed of many different and overlapping factors such as interest, curiosity, need or desire to achieve … More than this, the term motivation seems to be meaningful only in relation to a particular action, i.e., it only makes sense when we talk about being motivated to do something.
Motivation is a hypothetical concept used to explain the initiation, direction, intensity, and persistence of goal-oriented behaviour. In other words, motivation is an internal state that arouses, directs, and maintains behaviour. As such when we study of motivation, we focus on how and why people initiate actions directed toward specific goals, how intensively they are involved in the activity, how persistent they are in their attempts to achieve these goals, and what they are thinking and feeling along the way.
When analysing the reasons why people choose to act in certain ways, it becomes clear that these reasons for our actions fall into different types. Sometimes we do something because the act of doing it is enjoyable in itself. At other times, we engage in an activity not because we are particularly interested in the activity itself, but because performing it will help us to obtain something else that we want. Consequently, some explanations of motivation rely on internal, personal factors such as needs, interests and curiosity. Other explanations relay on external, environmental factors such as rewards, punishment, social pressure and so on. This difference in explanations had led to a classic distinction in motivation between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation

[Raniaranya]

Thank you so much brother
That was beneficial !!

[ath111]

Thank you so much brother
That was beneficial !!


You are welcome,sister

[ath111]

Some information in linguistics

Linguistics is the scientific study of ********, which can be theoretical or applied. Someone who engages in this study is called a linguist.
Theoretical (or general) linguistics encompasses a number of sub-fields, such as the study of ******** structure (grammar) and meaning (semantics). The study of grammar encompasses morphology (formation and alteration of word) and syntax (the rules that determine the way words combine into phrases and sentences). Also a part of this field are phonology, the study of sound systems and abstract sound units, and phonetics, which is concerned with the actual properties of speech sounds (phones), non-speech sounds, and how they are produced and perceive.
Linguistics compares ********s (comparative linguistics) and explores their histories, in order to find universal properties of ******** and to account for its development and origins (historical linguistics).
Applied linguistics puts linguistic theories into practice in areas such as foreign ******** teaching, speech therapy, translation and speech pathology
Linguists may specialize in some subpart of the linguistic structure, which can be arranged in the following terms, from sound to meaning:
Semantics, the study of the meaning of words (lexical semantics) and fixed word combinations (phraseology), and how these combine to form the meanings of sentences
Pragmatics, the study of how utterances are used (literally, figuratively, or otherwise) in communicative acts .
Discourse analysis, the analysis of ******** use in texts (spoken or written )
Many linguists would agree that the divisions overlap considerably, but the independent significance of each of these areas is not universally acknowledged. Regardless of any particular linguist’s position, each area has core concepts that foster significant scholarly inquiry and research.
Intersecting with these domains are fields arranged around the kind of external factors that are considered. For example
Stylistics, the study of linguistic factors that place a discourse in context
Developmental linguistics, the study of the development of linguistic ability in an individual, particularly the acquisition of ******** in childhood
Historical linguistics or Diachronic linguistics, the study of ******** change
Evolutionary linguistics, the study of the origin and subsequent development of ********
Psycholinguistics, the study of the cognitive processes and representations underlying ******** use
Sociolinguistics, the study of social patterns of linguistic variability
Clinical linguistics, the application of linguistic theory to the area of Speech-******** Pathology
Neurolinguistics, the study of the brain networks that underlie grammar and communication
Biolinguistics, the study of natural as well as human taught communication systems in animals compared to human ********
Computational linguistics, the study of computational implementations of linguistic structures
Applied linguistics, the study of ******** related issues applied in every day life, notably ******** policies and ******** education

[toulay]

Peace be upon you
First,I want to thank you for this great idea

Some pieces of information in methodology

Definition of research:it is the process of arriving at dependable solutions to problems through the planned and systematic collection,analysis and interpretation of data(this definition is given by Osuala)

Characteristics of research:
-research addresses problems
-systematic research is carefully ordered in well-defined steps that are obvious to all
-it's empirical:it relies on objective observations of reality
-it is controlled (it must not be affected by anything the researcher is interested in)
-it is probalistic:based on probalities i.e nothing is certain or absolute.Everything is subject to change or total rejection in the light of evidence
-research is theoritical:it is concerned with developing,exploring or testing the theories or ideas we have about the world
-research is nomothetic:it is interested with the general case rather than the individual even when research studies the individual,it would want to generalize to more
-research is objective and non-based,the researcher must be objective enough

[Karim-Rap-4-Life]

Hello everybody
I want to thank MR.ATH 111 for the thread which is a need in this section
inshallah we see an interruction between the students
. I’m trying to put every module in every participation and eatch time I get new files I add them so as to be precise and make it easy for the researcher good luck



African Civilisation


West African Kingdoms before the Slave Trade by Lisa Lindsay

http://www.4shared.com/office/iyqiE6qQ/2script_no_picts.html



The African civilizations chapter 5_ (No author)
http://www.4shared.com/office/tu9VSX6D/3_05_african_civilisations.html


AFRICAN AMERICANS by Roy S. Bryce-Laporte, Emory J. Tolbert
http://www.4shared.com/office/TC6ybbft/510.html


Africa: The Passing of the Golden Ages by John Henrik Clarke (May 1988)
http://www.4shared.com/file/TfKgbEaJ/Africa.html


GHANA, MALI, SONGHAI (brief history)
http://www.4shared.com/office/ubbxsLux/africaPOSinfo.html


ANCIENT WEST AFRICAN KINGDOMS: AN OVERVIEW
http://www.4shared.com/file/hznU0s6V/ANCIENT_WEST_AFRICAN_KINGDOMS.html

West Africa_ (No author)
http://www.4shared.com/office/ttTOX6iV/Ch1_sec_2.html

Early Urban Centres in West Africa_by Kolawole Adekola
http://www.4shared.com/office/sCx5vfny/news0309-4.html


GHANA, MALI AND SONGHAI EMPIRES_ Newsflash: heritage chronicles
http://www.4shared.com/office/FrqLBhO5/newsflash_empires.html


Ghana Medieval Trading Empire of West Africa by Joan Parrish-Major
http://www.4shared.com/office/Gkpwit00/NH107-preview.html


Saharan Trade: A Link between Europe and Africa
http://www.4shared.com/file/9BEa92oY/The_Saharan_Trade.html

[Karim-Rap-4-Life]

American civilization

Black Slavery:

African American History: 1615-Present by Dr. Brian L. Christenson
http://www.4shared.com/office/g5MAjyff/African_American_History_1615-.html

African Slavery in America _by Thomas Paine
http://www.4shared.com/office/D3y5JeTl/African_Slavery_in_America__by.html

African Slavery in America_ by Charles Jared Ingersoll
http://www.4shared.com/office/GPNTqi6g/African_Slavery_in_America_C_I.html

Beginnings of Slavery in the Americas

http://www.4shared.com/office/xoaHwcxO/Begining_of_slavery_in_america.html

Monroe Doctrine

The Monroe doctrine and the war_ by CARL BECKER
http://www.4shared.com/office/TOakjsbL/The_monroe_doctrine_and_the_wa.html

The Monroe Doctrine Origin and Early American Foreign Policy
http://www.4shared.com/office/5urgswqN/The_Monroe_Doctrine_Origin_and.html

The Monroe Doctrine (President James Monroe's 7th annual message to CongressDecember 2, 1823

http://www.4shared.com/office/Z0cuOYZS/The_Monroe_Doctrine.html (http://www.4shared.com/office/Z0cuOYZS/The_Monroe_Doctrine.html)


US expands to the pacific

WESTWARD EXPANSION
http://www.4shared.com/office/FspStWPh/WESTWARD_EXPANSION.html

Westward Expansion Impact on American Indians 1860s - 1900s

http://www.4shared.com/office/B6O_NQUS/Westward_Expansion_Impact_on_A.html



American Civil War

Florida Civil War Heritage Trail

http://www.4shared.com/office/vkyCMdr8/Florida_Civil_War_Heritage_Tra.html

American Civil War (PowerPoint)

http://www.4shared.com/office/_95bVoVU/American_Civil_War.html

Causes of American Civil War
http://www.4shared.com/office/Jck-IIzR/Causes_of_American_Civil_war.html

Part 8 the American Civil War 1860 - 1865

http://www.4shared.com/office/U-A5Dti6/Part_8_The_American_Civil_War_.html

here is a short book about the life of the american president Abraham lincoln

http://www.4shared.com/office/tqvZay0c/Abraham_Lincoln__a_legacy_of_f.html


a good book about american civ (http://www.djelfa.info/vb/showthread.php?t=1455034)

[Karim-Rap-4-Life]

American Literature

What is the American dream
http://www.4shared.com/file/Yq7lD3o6/What_is_the_American_Dream.html

American dream in Great Gatsby

http://www.4shared.com/file/dvTU9Khs/American_Dream_in_Great_Gatsby.html

Death of a salesman by Arthur Miller (Novel)

http://www.4shared.com/office/_sx_sZB3/Death_of_a_Salesman_by_Arthur_.html

Great gatsby (Arabic).PDF (Novel)

http://www.4shared.com/office/wcTODhg6/Great_gatsby__Arabic_.html


Great Gatsby by Francis Scott Ftzgerald (Novel) pdf

http://www.4shared.com/office/53nwgzru/The-Great-Gatsby.html


Great gatsby analysis.pdf

http://www.4shared.com/office/b7uLWn1E/Great_gatsby_analysis.html

[Imiiii]

so clever idea i am second year student i wonder if you help me in linguistics about the lesson of the ordinary thinking please!!!!

[Karim-Rap-4-Life]

British Literature



Heart of darkness (Arabic) translated by D. Ahmed Khaled Toufik
http://www.4shared.com/office/M7m-4i7q/Heart_of_darkness__Arabic_.html

Heart of Darkness_ Joseph Conrad (English)
http://www.4shared.com/office/-g1OQWvn/Heart_of_Darkness_T.html

Heart of darkness (Literary analysis)
http://www.4shared.com/file/JUJKwSui/Heart_of_Darkness.html

[Karim-Rap-4-Life]

British Civilisation


Elections

Parliament and the electoral systems
http://www.4shared.com/office/03her2mN/02_Parliament_and_the_electora.html

Membership of UK political parties
http://www.4shared.com/office/x3ufjjnv/Membership_of_UK_political_par.html

Voting systems in the UK
http://www.4shared.com/office/b_8YiJ40/Voting_systems_in_the_UK.html


Industrial revolution


Industrial Revolution
http://www.4shared.com/office/8E4h3TTG/Industrial_Revolution.html

Industrial Revolution _JOEL MOKYR
http://www.4shared.com/office/6jHg_ATY/Industrial_Revolution_JOEL_MOK.html

The Industrial Revolution and Consequences
http://www.4shared.com/office/bIjgNqTm/The_Industrial_Revolution_and_.html

The Industrial Revolution in England (Lesson plan)
http://www.4shared.com/office/5LikpqUg/The_Industrial_Revolution_in_E.html

The Industrial Revolution, 1700–1900
http://www.4shared.com/office/5w9io9Dw/The_Industrial_Revolution_1700.html

The secret history of the industrial Revolution
http://www.4shared.com/office/UfYwyEXO/THE_SECRET_HISTORY_OF_THE_INDU.html

Why the industrial revolution was a European phenomenon? JOEL MOKYR
http://www.4shared.com/office/mOmNTGfo/Why_the_industrial_revolution_.html



The impacts of Industrial Revolution


ASSESS THE IMPACT OF THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION IN THE 18TH AND 19TH CENTURIES
http://www.4shared.com/office/wnNHOf0C/ASSESS_THE_IMPACT_OF_THE_INDUS.html

Session_24_The Impact of the Industrial Revolution
http://www.4shared.com/office/kRQ5EgAQ/Session_24_The_Impact_of_the_I.html

Social impact of the industrial revolution
http://www.4shared.com/office/kRQ5EgAQ/Session_24_The_Impact_of_the_I.html

The Impact of the Industrial Revolution on Warfare_ by Walter S. Zapotoczny
http://www.4shared.com/office/ZVT3qM5M/The_Impact_of_the_Industrial_R.html

The Industrial Revolution and its impact on the European society
http://www.4shared.com/office/rZ4424zq/The_Industrial_Revolution_and_.html



Political Parties


Labour Party
http://www.4shared.com/file/1i1kLEoS/labourparty.html
Political.parties structure
http://www.4shared.com/office/yRM4865X/Politicalparties.html




The Corn Law

Free Trade the Repeal of the Corn Laws_ CHERYL SCHONHARDT- BAILEY
http://www.4shared.com/office/KyGK-4us/Free_Trade_The_Repeal_of_the_C.html

Observations on the Effects of the Corn Laws_ Thomas R. Malthus
http://www.4shared.com/office/PSbirXnx/Observations_on_the_Effects_of.html

The second face hegemony_ Scott C. James; David A. Lake
http://www.4shared.com/office/smVfMiDm/Second_Face_IO_43_1__1989_.html



The victorian age

The Victorian age (1830 - 1900)
http://www.4shared.com/office/6KvT2cxW/15-Victorian_Age_Part_II.html

The Victorian period 1830-1901
http://www.4shared.com/office/mn1tUQqU/L01-The-Victorian-Period.html

The Victorian Period (PowerPoint)
http://www.4shared.com/office/-vW3eP5t/The_Victorian_Period.html

The Victorian Age (Queen Victoria; the Chartist Movement; the Corn Laws)
http://www.4shared.com/office/nKTa1XlG/Victorian_Age.html

Victorian Britain

http://www.4shared.com/office/TKzlZCUp/VictorianBritain.html


Other Topics

A HISTORY OF BRITAIN_ Simon Schama
http://www.4shared.com/office/cYKsiEWK/British_civilisation.html

Overview of the UK system of government
http://www.4shared.com/file/LRVDZmJp/Overview_of_the_UK_system_of_g.html

Parliament House of Commons and Lords
http://www.4shared.com/file/38iThhN0/Parliament.html

[ath111]

British Civilisation


Elections

Parliament and the electoral systems
http://www.4shared.com/office/03her2mN/02_Parliament_and_the_electora.html

Membership of UK political parties
http://www.4shared.com/office/x3ufjjnv/Membership_of_UK_political_par.html

Voting systems in the UK
http://www.4shared.com/office/b_8YiJ40/Voting_systems_in_the_UK.html


Industrial revolution


Industrial Revolution
http://www.4shared.com/office/8E4h3TTG/Industrial_Revolution.html

Industrial Revolution _JOEL MOKYR
http://www.4shared.com/office/6jHg_ATY/Industrial_Revolution_JOEL_MOK.html

The Industrial Revolution and Consequences
http://www.4shared.com/office/bIjgNqTm/The_Industrial_Revolution_and_.html

The Industrial Revolution in England (Lesson plan)
http://www.4shared.com/office/5LikpqUg/The_Industrial_Revolution_in_E.html

The Industrial Revolution, 1700–1900
http://www.4shared.com/office/5w9io9Dw/The_Industrial_Revolution_1700.html

The secret history of the industrial Revolution
http://www.4shared.com/office/UfYwyEXO/THE_SECRET_HISTORY_OF_THE_INDU.html

Why the industrial revolution was a European phenomenon? JOEL MOKYR
http://www.4shared.com/office/mOmNTGfo/Why_the_industrial_revolution_.html



The impacts of Industrial Revolution


ASSESS THE IMPACT OF THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION IN THE 18TH AND 19TH CENTURIES
http://www.4shared.com/office/wnNHOf0C/ASSESS_THE_IMPACT_OF_THE_INDUS.html

Session_24_The Impact of the Industrial Revolution
http://www.4shared.com/office/kRQ5EgAQ/Session_24_The_Impact_of_the_I.html

Social impact of the industrial revolution
http://www.4shared.com/office/kRQ5EgAQ/Session_24_The_Impact_of_the_I.html

The Impact of the Industrial Revolution on Warfare_ by Walter S. Zapotoczny
http://www.4shared.com/office/ZVT3qM5M/The_Impact_of_the_Industrial_R.html

The Industrial Revolution and its impact on the European society
http://www.4shared.com/office/rZ4424zq/The_Industrial_Revolution_and_.html



Political Parties


Labour Party
http://www.4shared.com/file/1i1kLEoS/labourparty.html
Political.parties structure
http://www.4shared.com/office/yRM4865X/Politicalparties.html




The Corn Law

Free Trade the Repeal of the Corn Laws_ CHERYL SCHONHARDT- BAILEY
http://www.4shared.com/office/KyGK-4us/Free_Trade_The_Repeal_of_the_C.html

Observations on the Effects of the Corn Laws_ Thomas R. Malthus
http://www.4shared.com/office/PSbirXnx/Observations_on_the_Effects_of.html

The second face hegemony_ Scott C. James; David A. Lake
http://www.4shared.com/office/smVfMiDm/Second_Face_IO_43_1__1989_.html







It's very kind of you,Karim.You're doing great effort

Thank you very much,brother

[imane ha]

British Civilisation


Elections

Parliament and the electoral systems
http://www.4shared.com/office/03her2mN/02_Parliament_and_the_electora.html

Membership of UK political parties
http://www.4shared.com/office/x3ufjjnv/Membership_of_UK_political_par.html

Voting systems in the UK
http://www.4shared.com/office/b_8YiJ40/Voting_systems_in_the_UK.html


Industrial revolution


Industrial Revolution
http://www.4shared.com/office/8E4h3TTG/Industrial_Revolution.html

Industrial Revolution _JOEL MOKYR
http://www.4shared.com/office/6jHg_ATY/Industrial_Revolution_JOEL_MOK.html

The Industrial Revolution and Consequences
http://www.4shared.com/office/bIjgNqTm/The_Industrial_Revolution_and_.html

The Industrial Revolution in England (Lesson plan)
http://www.4shared.com/office/5LikpqUg/The_Industrial_Revolution_in_E.html

The Industrial Revolution, 1700–1900
http://www.4shared.com/office/5w9io9Dw/The_Industrial_Revolution_1700.html

The secret history of the industrial Revolution
http://www.4shared.com/office/UfYwyEXO/THE_SECRET_HISTORY_OF_THE_INDU.html

Why the industrial revolution was a European phenomenon? JOEL MOKYR
http://www.4shared.com/office/mOmNTGfo/Why_the_industrial_revolution_.html



The impacts of Industrial Revolution


ASSESS THE IMPACT OF THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION IN THE 18TH AND 19TH CENTURIES
http://www.4shared.com/office/wnNHOf0C/ASSESS_THE_IMPACT_OF_THE_INDUS.html

Session_24_The Impact of the Industrial Revolution
http://www.4shared.com/office/kRQ5EgAQ/Session_24_The_Impact_of_the_I.html

Social impact of the industrial revolution
http://www.4shared.com/office/kRQ5EgAQ/Session_24_The_Impact_of_the_I.html

The Impact of the Industrial Revolution on Warfare_ by Walter S. Zapotoczny
http://www.4shared.com/office/ZVT3qM5M/The_Impact_of_the_Industrial_R.html

The Industrial Revolution and its impact on the European society
http://www.4shared.com/office/rZ4424zq/The_Industrial_Revolution_and_.html



Political Parties


Labour Party
http://www.4shared.com/file/1i1kLEoS/labourparty.html
Political.parties structure
http://www.4shared.com/office/yRM4865X/Politicalparties.html




The Corn Law

Free Trade the Repeal of the Corn Laws_ CHERYL SCHONHARDT- BAILEY
http://www.4shared.com/office/KyGK-4us/Free_Trade_The_Repeal_of_the_C.html

Observations on the Effects of the Corn Laws_ Thomas R. Malthus
http://www.4shared.com/office/PSbirXnx/Observations_on_the_Effects_of.html

The second face hegemony_ Scott C. James; David A. Lake
http://www.4shared.com/office/smVfMiDm/Second_Face_IO_43_1__1989_.html








salam 3alaykom every body

first of all i would like to thank you alot mr karim rap 4 life ..it is a kind from you to offer such a help

so if you can sir i need the 3rd year lmd system " program" and i ask allah to reward you ..

[Karim-Rap-4-Life]

It's very kind of you,Karim.You're doing great effort

Thank you very much,brother


you're welcome Brother and this is my duty
I hope i'm on thge program because I don't know how the program is lke
and all what I've posted normally is for 2nd year LMD system
thanks again

[Karim-Rap-4-Life]

salam 3alaykom every body

first of all i would like to thank you alot mr karim rap 4 life ..it is a kind from you to offer such a help

so if you can sir i need the 3rd year lmd system " program" and i ask allah to reward you ..

Wa3alaykom essalam
well thank you for dropping such an encouraging comments
it's my intention to put links for 3rd year lmd system but I don't know
if i can do exactly what the students are looking for because I don't know the program of 3rd year students I'm still making research
and when fnd surely 'll post
good luck

[Karim-Rap-4-Life]

Methodology of research

Research Methodology and Statistics_ Yogesh Kumar Singh
http://www.4shared.com/office/kRP43XLG/Research_Methodology.html
Chapter Three: Research Methodology
http://www.4shared.com/office/72MBmH-v/Methodology__Chapter_three.html
Research Methodology an introduction
http://www.4shared.com/office/89orn7l2/Research_Methodology_an_introd.html
Research Methodology
http://www.4shared.com/office/kRP43XLG/Research_Methodology.html
Research Methodology (short)
http://www.4shared.com/office/x_4eS14D/Research_Methodology__short_.html



here are some documents that you need
in making a research paper
citng references

http://dc693.4shared.com/img/n156RAVT/s3/1426726b010/Citing_sources_in_APA_style_01.jpg

http://dc693.4shared.com/img/b_mKtVP3/s3/14267281770/Citing_sources_in_APA_style_02.jpg

http://dc693.4shared.com/img/LPcPO86m/s3/1426728f230/Citing_sources_in_APA_style_03.jpg



here are the rest of the documents

http://www.4shared.com/folder/FUrCrsqw/Scanned.html

[Karim-Rap-4-Life]

Phonetics

English Phonetics and Phonology A practical course 2nd edition by Peter Roach

http://www.4shared.com/office/TACgrmjh/Cambridge_-_English_Phonetics_.html
Introduction toPhonetics/PhonologyWintersemester
2003-2004
Potsdam

http://www.4shared.com/office/r1_mQZA9/INTRODUCTION_TO_PHONETICS_P.html

[Imiiii]

thank you so muuuuuch karim this is kind of you may Allah blesse youu

[Karim-Rap-4-Life]

thank you so muuuuuch karim this is kind of you may Allah blesse youu

you're welcome sister it's my duty to provide a lil help
thanks for dropping by

[brahim.b]

Thank you so much , i just want to know exactly how the exams will be ? i want an example about literature exam and linguistics exam plz can anybody helps me ?

[Karim-Rap-4-Life]

Linguistics
for those who are searching for linguistic courses I would like to redirect you to a very interesting book about linguistics I guess every student heard about well check out this thread pls


Linguistics By H.G.Widdowson (http://www.djelfa.info/vb/showthread.php?t=1467915)

PS: i'm still making a research about the courses when i find them 'll share 'em

Psycholinguistcs


A study on Relationship between Lang-age Anxiety and Proficiency in case of Japanese learners of English.
http://www.4shared.com/office/N1HkHWYk/A_study_on_Relationship_betwee.html

Second Lang-age Acquisition and Age Jennifer Wagner
http://www.4shared.com/office/3JlFW6NU/Second_********_Acquisition_an.html

SECOND Lang-age ACQUISITION AND ITS PSCYCHO-CULTURAL IMPLICATIONS By Dana Waskita
http://www.4shared.com/office/E591ZGDp/SECOND_********_ACQUISITION_AN.html

Second Lang-age acquisition the interface between theory and practice
Summary of findings of a project-based linguistics seminar
held at the Department of English Studies
of the University of Graz, Austria
Oct 2002 – Jan 2003.
http://www.4shared.com/office/3NyjCBI5/Second_********_acquisition_th.html

Second Lang-age acquisition by María del Carmen Gagliardi
http://www.4shared.com/office/91FNn55v/Second_********_acquisition.html

Anxiety in Lang-age Learning
http://www.4shared.com/file/UZZ67XEH/Anxiety_in_********_Learning.html

Lang-age Acquisition_ Steven Pinker
http://www.4shared.com/file/EMhl32sW/********_Acquisition.html

Second Lang-age Acquisition Theory (Monitor, Natural order…)
http://www.4shared.com/office/zHKPeEQJ/of_Second_********_Acquisition.html

العوامل المؤثرة في تعلم اللغة الثانية
http://www.4shared.com/office/cVZNRbAD/_____.html

القراءات والدراسات النقدية (نظريات اكتساب اللغة الثانية وتطبيقاتها التربوية
http://www.4shared.com/office/gx5tgdf0/_________.html

دراسة ظاهرة اكتساب اللغة
http://www.4shared.com/office/JrMpn-ZL/___.html

مراحل إكتساب اللغة
http://www.4shared.com/office/Q3u93zFG/___online.html

نظريات إكتساب اللغة احمد جمعة محمد ابو شنب
http://www.4shared.com/file/zfvrWzKE/_______.html

نظريات اكتساب اللغة الثانية وتطبيقاتها التربوية

http://www.4shared.com/office/8T-3eaUd/_____.html

[Karim-Rap-4-Life]

Thank you so much , i just want to know exactly how the exams will be ? i want an example about literature exam and linguistics exam plz can anybody helps me ?

salamo my bro wassup look we're still on test and still we have no volunteers i did not study an lmd system and I don't know how the exams like but i'll ask some members to send us some exams and if they can scan them it would be cool just be patient

[fille algerie]

Salam Alykom
First of all I want to to give special thank 4 u brother ath
Also I want to thank sir Karim 4 his participation
they 're a very useful lessons
Best Regards
http://up99.com/upfiles/png_files/rJy83374.png

[Karim-Rap-4-Life]

fille algerie (http://www.djelfa.info/vb/member.php?u=369045)
Thanks for passing by good luck ^^

[ath111]

Pieces of information in Reading Techniques

Reading and reading comprehension

What is reading?

Researchers in the field of reading have not agreed about one exact definition of this skill. Each of them has attempted to define reading from a distinct point of view.

1. One definition of reading describes it as “the activity of reconstructing a reasonable spoken message from a printed text, and making meaning responses to the reconstructed message that would be made to the spoken message” (Carroll 62). It is clear that this definition relates reading to speech. This reflects the influence of the Audio lingual Method which considers reading as an adjunct to oral skills and describes it as being speech written down.

2. Another definition stresses the mechanics involved in this act. J. Harmer, in particular, defines reading as “an exercise dominated by the eyes and the brain. The eyes receive messages and the brain then has to work out the significance of these messages” (Harmer 153). Therefore, Harmer defines reading on the basis of the different organs that are involved in this act.

3. A third definition stresses the psychological aspect of reading. K. Goodman describes reading as “a psycholinguistic guessing game in which the reader reconstructs as best as he can a message which has been encoded by a writer as a graphic display” (qtd. in Eskey et al 74). Thus, according to Goodman reading is: a psycholinguistic activity because it involves the interaction of ******** and thought in that the writer transforms his thoughts into a ******** whereas the reader transforms the ******** contained in the text into thoughts and ideas in his/her mind.

4. Another definition emphasises the mental and cognitive aspects of reading. F. Davies says: “Reading is private. It is a mental or cognitive process which involves a reader in trying to follow and respond to a message from a writer who is distant in space and time” (Davies 01). Davies’ definition raises an important issue about reading. In addition to being a private activity, reading is an interaction between a writer and a reader which results in the transmission of a message between them. In this respect, reading is to some extent similar to listening because both of them require an encoder (speaker, writer), a decoder (hearer, reader) and a means of communication which can be an oral or a written message. But because the reader and the writer do not meet face to face, the latter does not have the opportunity of getting a feedback which a speaker in an oral conversation may have. By the same token, and possibly more relevant to present concern, a reader also has no chance of an explanation or clarification from the writer. He is left alone to face the text. Yet, this is, it may be argued, what makes reading a most interesting, thought provoking activity.


What is reading comprehension?

According to F. Grellet (1981: 3), understanding a written text means extracting the required information from it as efficiently as possible. Therefore, we may say that a person has understood a text if he/she succeeds to get the necessary information in the most effective way.

What do we read?
Here are the main text-types one usually comes across.
- Novels, short stories, tales; other literary texts and passages (e.g. essays, diaries, anecdotes, biographies)
- Plays.
- Letters, postcards, telegrams, notes.
- Newspapers and magazines (headlines, articles, editorials, letters to the editor, stop press, classified ads, weather forecast, radio/TV theatre programmes)
- Specialized articles, reports, reviews, essays, business letters, summaries, accounts, pamphlets (political and other).
- Handbooks, textbooks, guidebooks.
- Recipes.
- Advertisements, travel brochures, catalogues.
- Puzzles, problems, rules for games.
- Instructions (e.g., warnings), directions (e.g. how to use … ), notices, rules and regulations, posters, signs (e.g. road signs), forms (e.g. application forms, landing cards), menus, price lists, tickets.
- Comic strips, cartoons and caricatures, legends (of maps, pictures).
- Statistics, diagrams, charts, ti****bles, maps.
- Telephone directories, dictionaries, phrasebooks.

Why do we read?
There are two main reasons for reading:
- Reading for pleasure.
- Reading for information (in order to find out something or in order to do something with the information you get).

How do we read?
The main ways of reading are as follows:
- Skimming: quickly running one’s eyes over a text to get the gist of it.
- Scanning: quickly going through a text to get to find a particular piece of information.
- Extensive reading: reading longer texts, usually for one’s own pleasure. This is a fluency activity, mainly involving global understanding.
- Intensive reading: reading shorter texts, to extract specific information. This is more an accuracy activity involving reading for detail.

[university4english]

Really valubale efforts you've made Mr ath111 cause you're helping students within this section.

Good luck ath111

[soliel d'or]

May Allah reward you ! :)

thank you teacher , and my brothers !

[M!ss_f@ti]

hello every body

thx a lot for opening this page

i need a help in american civilization ,, i have a research about Building the nation , istitutions and consittution

plz any information put it here

waiting for ur answers plllllz

thx a lot

[ath111]

American Civilization

Reconstruction

Introduction

Reconstruction was an era of unprecedented political conflict and of far-reaching changes in the nature of American government.
At the national level, new laws and constitutional amendments permanently altered the federal system and the definition of citizenship.
In the South, a politically mobilized black community joined with white allies to bring the Republican party to power, while excluding those accustomed to ruling the region.
The national debate over Reconstruction centred on three questions: On what terms should the defeated Confederacy be reunited with the Union? Who should establish these terms, Congress or the President? What should be the place of the former slaves in the political life of the South?
During the Civil War, Abraham Lincoln announced a lenient plan, with suffrage limited to whites, to attract Southern Confederates back to the Union. By the end of his life, however, Lincoln had come to favour extending the right to vote to educated blacks and former soldiers.
Lincoln's successor, Andrew Johnson, in 1865 put into effect his own Reconstruction plan, which gave the white South a free hand in establishing new governments. Many Northerners became convinced that Johnson's policy, and the actions of the governments he established, threatened to reduce African Americans to a condition similar to slavery, while allowing former "rebels" to regain political power in the South. As a result, Congress overturned Johnson's program.
Between 1866 and 1869, Congress enacted new laws and the Fourteenth and Fifteenth amendments to the Constitution, guaranteeing blacks' civil rights and giving black men the right to vote.
These measures for the first time enshrined in American law the principle that the rights of citizens could not be abridged because of race. And they led directly to the creation of new governments in the South elected by blacks as well as white - America's first experiment in interracial democracy
When the Civil War ended, leaders turned to the question of how to reconstruct the nation. One important issue was the right to vote. Hotly debated were rights of black American men and former Confederate men to vote. In the latter half of the 1860s, Congress passed a series of acts designed to address the question of rights, as well as how the Southern states would be governed. These acts included the act creating the Freedmen's Bureau, the Civil Rights Act of 1866, and several Reconstruction Acts. The Reconstruction Acts established military rule over Southern states until new governments could be formed. They also limited some former Confederate officials' and military officers' rights to vote and to run for public office. (However, the latter provisions were only temporary and soon rescinded for almost all of those affected by them.) Meanwhile, the Reconstruction acts gave former male slaves the right to vote and hold public office.
Congress also passed two amendments to the Constitution. The Fourteenth Amendment made African-Americans citizens and protected citizens from discriminatory state laws. Southern states were required to ratify the Fourteenth Amendment before being readmitted to the union. The Fifteenth Amendment guaranteed African American men the right to vote.
Most of the documents in this section are related to the right to vote and how voting actually occurred in Southern states. Other rights are also discussed in some of the documents. As you read the documents, weigh the various arguments that are made. Also, look for similarities with issues or concerns that have been raised in more recent U.S. history.
The aftermath of any war is difficult for the survivors. Those difficulties are usually even worse after a civil war. Such was certainly the case in the period after the American Civil War.
With several notable exceptions, most of the fighting during the Civil War took place in the South. As a result, most of the devastation of the war affected the South and its people to a much greater extent thanpeople in the North. In addition, portions of the South were occupied by Federal armies from virtually the very beginning of the war. Over time, Union forces occupied more and more Southern territory and governed those places as well.
Reconstruction was a period of political crisis and considerable violence. Most white Southerners envisioned a quick reunion in which white supremacy would remain intact in the South. In this vision, African Americans, while in some sense free, would have few civil rights and no voice in government. Many Northerners including President Andrew Johnson, who succeeded to office after the assassination of Abraham Lincoln, shared these views. On the other hand, both black Southerners and the majority of Northern Republicans thought that before the Southern states were restored to their place in the Union, the federal government must secure the basic rights of former slaves.
In civil rights legislation and the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments to the U.S. Constitution, the Republican Congress wrote this policy into law. They were attempting, for the first time in history, to create a truly interracial democracy. Faced with violent opposition in the South and a retreat from the ideal of racial equality in the North, Reconstruction proved short-lived. It would take another century for the nation to begin to live up to this era's promise of equality for all its citizens.
VII.2 The Meaning of Freedom:
Black and White Responses to the End of Slavery
Confederate defeat and the end of slavery brought far-reaching changes in the lives of all Southerners. The destruction of slavery led inevitably to conflict between blacks seeking to breathe substantive meaning into their freedom by asserting their independence from white control, and whites seeking to retain as much as possible of the old order.
The meaning of freedom itself became a point of conflict in the Reconstruction South. Former slaves relished the opportunity to flaunt their liberation from the innumerable regulations of slavery.
Immediately after the Civil War, they sought to give meaning to freedom by reuniting families separated under slavery, establishing their own churches and schools, seeking economic autonomy, and demanding equal civil and political rights.
Most white Southerners reacted to defeat and emancipation with dismay. Many families had suffered the loss of loved ones and the destruction of property. Some thought of leaving the South altogether, or retreated into nostalgia for the Old South and the Lost Cause of the Confederacy.
In 1865 and 1866 many white Southerners joined memorial associations that established Confederate cemeteries and monuments throughout the region. Others, unwilling to accept a new relationship to former slaves, resorted to violent opposition to the new world being created around them.
Reconstruction in brief . . . a summary
Reconstruction was the attempt from 1865 to 1877 in U.S. history to resolve the issues of the American Civil War, when both the Confederacy and slavery were destroyed. Reconstruction addressed the return to the Union of the secessionist Southern states, the status of the leaders of the Confederacy, and the Constitutional and legal status of the Negro Freedmen. Violent controversy erupted over how to tackle those issues, and by the late 1870s Reconstruction had failed to equally integrate the Freedmen into the legal, political, economic and social system. "Reconstruction" is also the common name for the entire history of the era 1865 to 1877.
Reconstruction came in three phases. Presidential Reconstruction, 1863-66 was controlled by Presidents Abraham Lincoln and Andrew Johnson, with the goal of quickly reuniting the country. Their moderate programs were opposed by the Radical Republicans, a political faction that gained power after the 1866 elections and began Congressional Reconstruction, 1866-1873 emphasizing civil rights and voting rights for the Freedmen. A Republican coalition of Freedmen, Carpetbaggers and Southern Unionists controlled most of the southern states. In the so-called Redemption, 1873-77, white supremacist Southerners (calling themselves "Redeemers") defeated the Republicans and took control of each southern state, marking the end of Reconstruction.
Radical Republican Charles Sumner argued that secession had destroyed statehood alone but the Constitution still extended its authority and its protection over individuals, as in the territories. Thaddeus Stevens and his followers viewed secession as having left the states in a status like newly conquered territory.
Congress rejected Johnson's argument that he had the war power to decide what to do, since the war was now over. Congress decided it had the primary authority to decide because the Constitution said the Congress had to guarantee each state a republican form of government; the issue became how republicanism should operate in the South.

[ath111]

Reconstruction, 1865–77: The South during Reconstruction

In the South the Reconstruction period was a time of readjustment accompanied by disorder. Southern whites wished to keep African Americans in a condition of quasi-servitude, extending few civil rights and firmly rejecting social equality. African Americans, on the other hand, wanted full freedom and, above all, land of their own. Inevitably, there were frequent clashes. Some erupted into race riots, but acts of terrorism against individual African American leaders were more common.
During this turmoil, Southern whites and blacks began to work out ways of getting their farms back into operation and of making a living. Indeed, the most important developments of the Reconstruction era were not the highly publicized political contests but the slow, almost imperceptible changes that occurred in Southern society. African Americans could now legally marry, and they set up conventional and usually stable family units; they quietly seceded from the white churches and formed their own religious organizations, which became centres for the African American community. Without land or money, most freedmen had to continue working for white masters; but they were now unwilling to labour in gangs or to live in the old slave quarters under the eye of the plantation owner.

Sharecropping gradually became the accepted labour system in most of the South—planters, short of capital, favoured the system because it did not require them to pay cash wages; African Americans preferred it because they could live in individual cabins on the tracts they rented and because they had a degree of independence in choosing what to plant and how to cultivate. The section as a whole, however, was desperately poor throughout the Reconstruction era; and a series of disastrously bad crops in the late 1860s, followed by the general agricultural depression of the 1870s, hurt both whites and blacks.

The governments set up in the Southern states under the congressional program of Reconstruction were, contrary to traditional clichés, fairly honest and effective. Though the period has sometimes been labeled “Black Reconstruction,” the Radical governments in the South were never dominated by African Americans. There were no black governors, only two black senators and a handful of congressmen, and only one legislature controlled by blacks. Those African Americans who did hold office appear to have been similar in competence and honesty to the whites. It is true that these Radical governments were expensive, but large state expenditures were necessary to rebuild after the war and to establish—for the first time in most Southern states—a system of common schools. Corruption there certainly was, though nowhere on the scale of the Tweed Ring, which at that time was busily looting New York City; but it is not possible to show that Republicans were more guilty than Democrats, or blacks than whites, in the scandals that did occur.
Though some Southern whites in the mountainous regions and some planters in the rich bottomlands were willing to cooperate with the African Americans and their Northern-born “carpetbagger” allies in these new governments, there were relatively few such “scalawags”; the mass of Southern whites remained fiercely opposed to African American political, civil, and social equality. Sometimes their hostility was expressed through such terrorist organizations as the Ku Klux Klan, which sought to punish so-called “uppity Negroes” and to drive their white collaborators from the South. More frequently it was manifested through support of the Democratic Party, which gradually regained its strength in the South and waited for the time when the North would tire of supporting the Radical regimes and would withdraw federal troops from the South.

The Ulysses S. Grant administrations, 1869–77

During the two administrations of President Grant there was a gradual attrition of Republican strength. As a politician the president was passive, exhibiting none of the brilliance he had shown on the battlefield. His administration was tarnished by the dishonesty of his subordinates, whom he loyally defended. As the older Radical leaders—men like Sumner, Wade, and Stevens—died, leadership in the Republican Party fell into the hands of technicians like Roscoe Conkling and James G. Blaine, men devoid of the idealistic fervour that had marked the early Republicans. At the same time, many Northerners were growing tired of the whole Reconstruction issue and were weary of the annual outbreaks of violence in the South that required repeated use of federal force. Efforts to shore up the Radical regimes in the South grew increasingly unsuccessful. The adoption of the Fifteenth Amendment (1870), prohibiting discrimination in voting on account of race, had little effect in the South, where terrorist organizations and economic pressure from planters kept African Americans from the polls. Nor were three Force Acts passed by the Republicans (1870–71), giving the president the power to suspend the writ of habeas corpus and imposing heavy penalties upon terroristic organizations, in the long run more successful. If they succeeded in dispersing the Ku Klux Klan as an organization, they also drove its members, and their tactics, more than ever into the Democratic camp.
Growing Northern disillusionment with Radical Reconstruction and with the Grant administration became evident in the Liberal Republican movement of 1872, which resulted in the nomination of the erratic Horace Greeley for president. Though Grant was overwhelmingly reelected, the true temper of the country was demonstrated in the congressional elections of 1874, which gave the Democrats control of the House of Representatives for the first time since the outbreak of the Civil War. Despite Grant's hope for a third term in office, most Republicans recognized by 1876 that it was time to change both the candidate and his Reconstruction program, and the nomination of Rutherford B. Hayes of Ohio, a moderate Republican of high principles and of deep sympathy for the South, marked the end of the Radical domination of the Republican Party.

The circumstances surrounding the disputed election of 1876 strengthened Hayes's intention to work with the Southern whites, even if it meant abandoning the few Radical regimes that remained in the South. In an election marked by widespread fraud and many irregularities, the Democratic candidate, Samuel J. Tilden, received the majority of the popular vote; but the vote in the Electoral College was long in doubt. In order to resolve the impasse, Hayes's lieutenants had to enter into agreement with Southern Democratic congressmen, promising to withdraw the remaining federal troops from the South, to share the Southern patronage with Democrats, and to favour that section's demands for federal subsidies in the building of levees and railroads. Hayes's inauguration marked, for practical purposes, the restoration of “home rule” for the South—i.e., that the North would no longer interfere in Southern elections to protect African Americans and that the Southern whites would again take control of their state governments.

Congressional Reconstruction: 1866–73

Republicans in Congress attempted to wrest control of Reconstruction policies. They passed legislation over President Johnson's vetoes. They passed constitutional amendments against his wishes. In short, they attempted to direct Reconstruction. However, the most 'radical' policy proposals never became laws. Although several Republicans in Congress styled themselves 'Radicals', they did not form a majority in either house. It is therefore inaccurate to refer to this period as Radical Reconstruction, a term popularized by anti-Reconstruction Southern Conservatives, and instead the term Congressional Reconstruction is preferred by most 21st century historians

[ath111]

Presidential Reconstruction

After helping to push through the 13th Amendment, abolishing slavery, President sought to quickly restore the rebel states to the Union. He considered Reconstruction a "restoration" and wanted to quickly readmit the former Confederate states after they had repudiated their ordinances of secession, accepted the 13th Amendment, repudiated the Confederate debt, and pledged loyalty to the Union.
Johnson's vision of Reconstruction clashed with that of many Republicans. He vetoed a string of Republican-backed measures, including an extension of the Freedman's Bureau and the first Civil Rights bill. He ordered black families evicted from land on which they had been settled by the U.S. Army. He acquiesced in the Black Codes which southern state governments enacted to reduce former slaves to the status of dependent plantation laborers.

Constitutional amendments

Three new Constitutional amendments were adopted. The 13th Amendment abolished slavery and was ratified in 1865. The 14th Amendment was rejected in 1866 but ratified in 1868, guaranteeing citizenship to all persons born or naturalized in the United States, except Native Americans, and granting them federal civil rights. The 15th Amendment passed in 1870, decreeing that the right to vote could not be denied because of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. The amendment did not declare the vote an unconditional right and only prohibited these specific types of discrimination while specific electoral policies were determined within each state. Notably, the 15th Amendment did not mention the right of women to vote.

Statutes

Congress clarified the scope of the federal writ of habeas corpus to allow federal courts to vacate unlawful state court convictions or sentences in 1867 (28 U.S.C. § 2254).

Re-admission to the union

• Tennessee - July 24, 1866
• Arkansas - June 22, 1868
• Florida - June 25, 1868
• North Carolina - July 4, 1868
• South Carolina - July 9, 1868
• Louisiana - July 9, 1868
• Alabama - July 13, 1868
• Virginia - January 26, 1870
• Mississippi - February 23, 1870
• Texas - March 30, 1870
• Georgia - July 15, 1870

Military reconstruction

With the Radicals in control Congress passed the Reconstruction Acts in 1867. The first Reconstruction Act placed ten Confederate states under military control, grouping them into five military districts:[14]
• First Military District: Virginia, under General John Schofield
• Second Military District: The Carolinas, under General Daniel Sickles
• Third Military District: Georgia, Alabama and Florida, under General John Pope
• Fourth Military District: Arkansas and Mississippi, under General Edward Ord
• Fifth Military District: Texas and Louisiana, under Generals Philip Sheridan and Winfield Scott Hancock
Tennessee was not made part of a military district (having already been readmitted to the Union), and therefore federal controls did not apply.
The ten Southern state governments were re-constituted under the direct control of the United States Army. There was little or no fighting, but rather a state of martial law in which the military closely supervised local government, supervised elections, and protected office holders from violence.[15] Blacks were enrolled as voters; former Confederate leaders were excluded.[Foner 1988 p 274–5] No one state was entirely representative. Here is what happened in Texas

The first critical step … was the registration of voters according to guidelines established by Congress and interpreted by Generals Sheridan and Griffin. The Reconstruction Acts called for registering all adult males, white and black, except those who had ever sworn an oath to uphold the Constitution of the United States and then engaged in rebellion.… Sheridan interpreted these restrictions stringently, barring from registration not only all pre-1861 officials of state and local governments who had supported the Confederacy but also all city officeholders and even minor functionaries such as sextons of cemeteries. In May Griffin … appointed a three-man board of registrars for each county, making his choices on the advice of known Unionists and local Freedman's Bureau agents. In every county where practicable a freedman served as one of the three registrars.… Final registration amounted to approximately 59,633 whites and 49,479 blacks. It is impossible to say how many whites were rejected or refused to register (estimates vary from 7,500 to 12,000), but blacks, who constituted only about 30 percent of the state's population, were significantly overrepresented at 45 percent of all voters. [17]
All Southern states were readmitted to the Union by the end of 1870, the last being Georgia. All but 500 top Confederate leaders were pardoned when President Grant signed the Amnesty Act of 1872.

[M!ss_f@ti]

may allah bless u brother

thx a lot for ur help

[marryangelina]

hi
please i need your help urgent
i asked for help many times but no one realy answered me and i even was not able to find some of my request topics
so could you please provide me with an idea about functionalism history and its relation to functional grammar , and a comarison between functional grammar and other grammar
thank you in advance

[ath111]

hi
please i need your help urgent
i asked for help many times but no one realy answered me and i even was not able to find some of my request topics
so could you please provide me with an idea about functionalism history and its relation to functional grammar , and a comarison between functional grammar and other grammar
thank you in advance

http://www3.niu.edu/acad/psych/Millis/History/2004/functionalism.htm

http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/functionalism.htm

[marryangelina]

thank you sir very much ja3alaha allah fe mizen hasanetek
but what i mean by functionalism is its relation to halliday this is it
thanks

[imano lili]

Thanks for the information

[dznina]

please can u help me in this topic " the commonwealth "

[marryangelina]

if the responsible of this page accept i can help you

[dznina]

can u give me your fb

[marryangelina]

for what my sister

[dznina]

To help me in my research
I'm sorry I do not mean something else

[soussodj]

plz help me i need a good books in American civilization and British civilizartion

[marryangelina]

sister dznina (http://www.djelfa.info/vb/member.php?u=341174) where are you , tell me how can i give yu my ******** acount name because i think hier is imposible

[Asolvip]

thank you so much for these great lessons .... but i have a request , if you could change that 4shared with another site ... a one which is easy to download from .... another time thank you

[Aline14]

we say piece of information n not pieces.It's an irregular noun.

[dznina]

i need information about Political system in USA

[dznina]

i need information about political system in US

[chez]

Plz I need Ur Help 4 the following qs in Linguistics :

1-account for the main simularities and defferences between the European structuralism and the American structuralism.

2-Compair and contrast the Bloomfields model with Chomskyan one !!

[bibbah]

thanks a lot for these books

they are really interesting `

[racha_faracha]

tkank you so match fo the information ..

[racha_faracha]

:mh92: hi, i'm english student i need your help :sdf: about phonetic 1st year in the university pleaaaase help me :sdf: pleaaaase now bcs neext week i have an exam pleaaaaaas brothers thnx :sdf: :sdf: :sdf:

[adelhamache]

we need some information about the 1 year of university

[فارسة المنام]

hello everybody how are you today are you okay? I hope so, our teacher of literature gave us a question to answer which is :is literature spoken!? Can you please help me to answer ? Thank you .

[سليماني18]

hello everybody how are you today are you okay? I hope so, our teacher of literature gave us a question to answer which is :is literature spoken!? Can you please help me to answer ? Thank you .

Literature can very well take an oral form. Take the Native Americans, for example. They used no type of writing to record anything. All of their history, stories, myths, etc. were passed from generation to generation through oral literature. Until other cultures were able to translate and transcribe these stories, no written records ever existed. They are of an oral culture so it is only fair that we include their myths, stories, etc. as a part of literature. We cannot exclude them just because they were not written on a sheet of paper.

I am not sure what you mean by pure or impure. If this has to do with validity, oral literature is as valid as its written counterpart. Remember, the Greek poet Homer was only an oral Poet.

[stellaso]

thanks a lot , it's really a good idea

[toulay]

Methodology


Action Research :is a process for studying problems by practioners scientifically to take decision for improving their currents practises.

Objectives of Action Research:
the improvement of the learning / teaching environment
to increase the students' achievement level
to develop teaching methods / strategies of teaching
to make students aware / sensitive about their errors
to develop the scientific among teachers
to make the educational system effective

Steps in Action Research Method:
identification of the problem
formulating hypothesis
collect data
data analysis
data interpretation
drawing conclusions

best of luck

[salimsabi]

hello every body. well i'm a new member I agazihave just read your step magazine. It's a good job. I hope you will

continue.I hope to participate too. I wrote some poems I want to share them with you. yours ghost salim.

[amelhope]

Hi peace be upon you
Actually i'm a 1st year english student and i really need literature lessons if u have of course and phonetics .

[ath111]

Hi peace be upon you
Actually i'm a 1st year english student and i really need literature lessons if u have of course and phonetics .

Here they are

https://www.sendspace.com/file/htqoau

https://www.sendspace.com/file/nhyj60

https://www.sendspace.com/file/6gf24k

https://www.sendspace.com/file/7igl0x

[hadil28]

...............................

[hadil28]

..............................

[hadil28]

............

[خلود m]

i need this book who have it
Discourse and context in lang-uage teaching: a guide for lang-uage teachers Marianne Celce-Murcia, Elite Olshtain

[فارسة المنام]

hi guys , what is up!? i need exams for 1st year LMD who can help me and give me some please!? peace on you

[ath111]

hi guys , what is up!? i need exams for 1st year LMD who can help me and give me some please!? peace on you


British
-American Civilization


First test


I-write short definitions about the
followings :


1- Hadrian’s Wall

2- Protestant Reformation

3- The Battle of
Hasting

4- Danelaw

5- Duke William of Normandy

II-Chooose one of the
following and write a paragraph :


I-The Romans established
a Romano-British culture . Write a paragraph explaining the impact of the
Roman civilization upon British history .


II- The British today are
often described as « Anglo-Saxon » . Discuss the role of
Anglo-Saxon culture in British history.



Langue de specialité
Exersice 1 : Match the
following words to their *****alents :


1-Alternative a-Conditions

2-Negotiate b-Gratis

3-Terms c-Bargain

4-Pay for d-Plan B

5-Free of charge e-Bear the cost of


Exercise 2 :
Complete the sentences with
the apporiate word : date, appointement, engagement, meeting, rendezvousve


1- Mr. Fahdrich won’t be able to attend owing to a
prior…………..

2- Mr. Hanzalik is held up in a ……….

3- Tomorrow at 5.30 ? okay, that’s…………

4- The manager decided to call an urgent …………….

5- Would you like to make another ………..

6- We can’t go. We have a dinner……

7- She was waiting for him at the……………

9- They’re not a couple. They’veonly just started ……………

10- Do you have a ……………….for the party or will you be going
alone ?





Exercise 3 :

Where would you put the
following words in these extracts ?

a/ enough

to grow herbs in containers

make sure the pot is large to give all the requirements they need when fully
grown.

b/ hardly

Sketch the outline first, so
that it can be seen, in case you make a mistake.

c/ almost

Heat the milk until it
boils.

Exercise 4 :
Study the following
newspaper advert . You have decided to apply for this job. Make notes for
your letter of application, then write the letter, paying attention to layout
as well as ******* .

STAFF REQUIRED FOR
RECEPTION WORK AT CITY HOTEL
We are looking for enthusiatic and helpful receptionists (m/f) to join our team. Candidates should be well-presented and able to speak at least two ********s. Hotel experience not necessary as training will be given. Ability to get on with people and work in a team more important. Some evening and weekend work. Good conditions and rates of pay. Apply in writing with CV and covering letter to : The manager, Hotel Nelson, queens Road, Rowborough RB2 4RN quoting Ref.EN2. .





Phonetics

First Term Exam


Q 1 :

The
followings are descriptions of some English vowel sounds, give the
symbol . for each vowel, and a word containing that vowel :


1 /
a diphthong gliding from the mid front position to the close front position


………………………………………………………………………………………………………..


2/
A short nearly open , central vowel made with neutral lips


………………………………………………………………………………………………………………


3/
A short nearly open, front front vowel made with neutral lips


…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..


4/
A long open, nearly back vowel made with neutral lips


………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..





Q
2 :

Indicate
whether the following statements are true or false (correct the false
statements)


1 /
In the articulation of the consonant sounds /k/ and /g/the the tongue touches
the hard palate, and therfore these two sounds are regarded as velar sounds
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………


2// æ/is the vowel sound in
the word (send) ………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……….


3/ // is the diphthong in in
the words ( chair-hair)……………………………………………………………….


…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……..


4/ / 3:/ is the vowel
sound in the words ( earth-world-work-were)…………………………………….


…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……..


Q 3 :


Ranscribe the following
words and describe the first consonant sound in each word :


1/
Dress……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …


2/ Travailler
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….


3/ Chemist………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …


4/
Books……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …


Q 4 :


Fill in the blanks :


1/ Aspiration is a short
period of …………after the explosion of …………when the aie leaves the mouth without
voice.


2/ …………consonants are
consonant sounds made by narrowing th air passag until the airs interfered with
and causes……


3/ The vocale cords can
vibrate causing ………, can allow free passage of the air, for ……..sounds, and can
completely stop the air flow giving the glottal stop.


4/ ……………………..are consonants
in which the air is completely…………………………and therefor compressed, and then released
with an …………………….GuestGuest

Just from the net

[فارسة المنام]

British
-American Civilization


First test


I-write short definitions about the
followings :


1- Hadrian’s Wall

2- Protestant Reformation

3- The Battle of
Hasting

4- Danelaw

5- Duke William of Normandy

II-Chooose one of the
following and write a paragraph :


I-The Romans established
a Romano-British culture . Write a paragraph explaining the impact of the
Roman civilization upon British history .


II- The British today are
often described as « Anglo-Saxon » . Discuss the role of
Anglo-Saxon culture in British history.



Langue de specialité
Exersice 1 : Match the
following words to their *****alents :


1-Alternative a-Conditions

2-Negotiate b-Gratis

3-Terms c-Bargain

4-Pay for d-Plan B

5-Free of charge e-Bear the cost of


Exercise 2 :
Complete the sentences with
the apporiate word : date, appointement, engagement, meeting, rendezvousve


1- Mr. Fahdrich won’t be able to attend owing to a
prior…………..

2- Mr. Hanzalik is held up in a ……….

3- Tomorrow at 5.30 ? okay, that’s…………

4- The manager decided to call an urgent …………….

5- Would you like to make another ………..

6- We can’t go. We have a dinner……

7- She was waiting for him at the……………

9- They’re not a couple. They’veonly just started ……………

10- Do you have a ……………….for the party or will you be going
alone ?





Exercise 3 :

Where would you put the
following words in these extracts ?

a/ enough

to grow herbs in containers

make sure the pot is large to give all the requirements they need when fully
grown.

b/ hardly

Sketch the outline first, so
that it can be seen, in case you make a mistake.

c/ almost

Heat the milk until it
boils.

Exercise 4 :
Study the following
newspaper advert . You have decided to apply for this job. Make notes for
your letter of application, then write the letter, paying attention to layout
as well as ******* .

STAFF REQUIRED FOR
RECEPTION WORK AT CITY HOTEL
We are looking for enthusiatic and helpful receptionists (m/f) to join our team. Candidates should be well-presented and able to speak at least two ********s. Hotel experience not necessary as training will be given. Ability to get on with people and work in a team more important. Some evening and weekend work. Good conditions and rates of pay. Apply in writing with CV and covering letter to : The manager, Hotel Nelson, queens Road, Rowborough RB2 4RN quoting Ref.EN2. .





Phonetics

First Term Exam


Q 1 :

The
followings are descriptions of some English vowel sounds, give the
symbol . for each vowel, and a word containing that vowel :


1 /
a diphthong gliding from the mid front position to the close front position


………………………………………………………………………………………………………..


2/
A short nearly open , central vowel made with neutral lips


………………………………………………………………………………………………………………


3/
A short nearly open, front front vowel made with neutral lips


…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..


4/
A long open, nearly back vowel made with neutral lips


………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..





Q
2 :

Indicate
whether the following statements are true or false (correct the false
statements)


1 /
In the articulation of the consonant sounds /k/ and /g/the the tongue touches
the hard palate, and therfore these two sounds are regarded as velar sounds
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………


2// æ/is the vowel sound in
the word (send) ………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……….


3/ // is the diphthong in in
the words ( chair-hair)……………………………………………………………….


…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……..


4/ / 3:/ is the vowel
sound in the words ( earth-world-work-were)…………………………………….


…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……..


Q 3 :


Ranscribe the following
words and describe the first consonant sound in each word :


1/
Dress……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …


2/ Travailler
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….


3/ Chemist………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …


4/
Books……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …


Q 4 :


Fill in the blanks :


1/ Aspiration is a short
period of …………after the explosion of …………when the aie leaves the mouth without
voice.


2/ …………consonants are
consonant sounds made by narrowing th air passag until the airs interfered with
and causes……


3/ The vocale cords can
vibrate causing ………, can allow free passage of the air, for ……..sounds, and can
completely stop the air flow giving the glottal stop.


4/ ……………………..are consonants
in which the air is completely…………………………and therefor compressed, and then released
with an …………………….GuestGuest

Just from the net

thank you so much teacher ^_^ allah bless you.

[ملكة الإحساس 94]

Peace be upon you
thanks a lot for the data.it is very interesting
i need your help to give me the book of - understanding britain.by:john randle - if it is available for you
and thank you so much

[lolita1984]

thanks a lot

[toulay]

Characterestics of modernism in literature

No longer seen as transparent;allowing us to"see through" to reality ,but now considered the way an individual constructs reality

L a n g u a g e is "thick" with multiple meanings and varied connotative forces

Emphasis on the Experimental

Art is artifact rather than reality

Non-sequential and non-chronological

Experience portrayed as a layered,allusive,discontinuous,using fragmentation and juxtaposition

Ambiguous endings------------open endings which are seen as more representative of reality

Rejection of traditional themes and subjects

Loss of faith in religion and society

Sense of disillusionment and loss of faith in the American Dream

Rejection of the ideal hero as infallible in favor of a hero who is flawed and disillusioned but shows"grace under pressure

Interest in the inner workings of the human mind,sometimes expressed through new narrative techniques

A delibrate complexity,even to the point of elitism,forcing readers to be very well -educated to read these works

A variety in c o n t e n t because with stable external world in question,subjectivity was ever more valued and accepted in literature

Along with the social realist and proletarian prose of the 1920s and the 1930s came a significant outpouring of political and protest poetry

Techniques in modernist works

Collapsed plot

Fragmentary techniques

Shifts in perspective,voice,and tone

Stream of consciousness point of view

Associative techniques

[nina_25]

Allah protect u all .really i don.t know how will i thank u for your effors which really help me thaaaaaaaaanks

[yasser_best]

please need help about American schools , i didn't find any thing important at the internet
for a présentation next thursday

[سجودي لرب العالمين]

please need help about American schools , i didn't find any thing important at the internet
for a présentation next thursday

Hello
This is a lecture of mine which is about the education in the U.S.A i hope that it will help u

http://store1.up-00.com/2015-03/142607994712.jpg

http://store1.up-00.com/2015-03/1426079947473.jpg

http://store1.up-00.com/2015-03/1426079945631.jpg

[houcine14]

Thank you Good luck everybody

[زهرةالرمال]

salam alaykum
thnx a lot for making this page, please i need some lessons and there plans in the 4th skills(reading, speaking,writing and listening) each one alone.and please these lessons must be a new ones because we asked to not give it from the books of middle or secondary schools please i need it as soon as possible.thnx in advence.

[toulay]

Peace be upon you

Today's lesson has to do with methodology
Today's lesson is the Law of Single Variable

Well,I will try to give an example so as to get the meaning and have an idea about the Law of Single Variable

I have something to add,we find the Law of Single Variable in Experimental Method

Eg:suppose that we have a group of people,the members have similarities :same age,same gender,same weight

Then,we divide the group into 2 groups:we will have 2 groups 1 is called the control group and the 2 nd is the experimental group

I hope it's clear so far

You remember,at first I mentioned weight so,the members are fat and we have an herb for weight loss we want to experiment

we will add this herb to the experimental group and any change that happens is due to the herb so this latter is the Law of Single Variable

We add nothing to the control group because we want to compare the groups

Best of luck

[غوّاص]

........................

[غوّاص]

................

[غوّاص]

.....................

[غوّاص]

.......................

[massi3dd]

thanks a lot

[massi3dd]

it's is very interisting

[massi3dd]

Anything about didactics and ESP.

[ath111]

Toulay

I mean how the mother tongue interferes when learning a foreign l.a.n.g.u.a.g.e

How it could be a bareer or how it may help

[toulay]

Toulay


I mean how the mother tongue interferes when learning a foreign l.a.n.g.u.a.g.e


How it could be a bareer or how it may help

I see
Sorry,I think I'm going to ask many questions
Again,what about civilization and literature?
Could you suggest something,please?
Thank you in advance

[ath111]

09 / 11 and how it has affectef the Arabic minority in USA

What do you think?

[toulay]

09 / 11 and how it has affectef the Arabic minority in USA



What do you think?

It really seems interesting
Do you think that references are available?
Thank you

[ath111]

It really seems interesting
Do you think that references are available?
Thank you

Of course,it was a great event which led to what is happening now in the world

[toulay]

Of course,it was a great event which lead to what is happening now in the world



Thank you so much Sir ath111
if I choose it ,I will be grateful for your help if you don't mind
Again,I will ask many questions
Thank you

[ath111]

Thank you so much Sir ath111
if I choose it ,I will be grateful for your help if you don't mind
Again,I will ask many questions
Thank you

You're welcome at any time

[toulay]

Peace be upon you

Sir ath111,could you please help me?

Thank you

[ath111]

Peace be upon you

Sir ath111,could you please help me?

Thank you

Of course

What is your problem?

[toulay]

Of course




What is your problem?


I have many many handouts

First of all,I want to ask you about british literature?

Please,could you give me an idea about postcolonial literature?

I have many terms in my handouts,if it's possible to explain them to me using your own words.

Thank you

[ath111]

I have many many handouts

First of all,I want to ask you about british literature?

Please,could you give me an idea about postcolonial literature?

I have many terms in my handouts,if it's possible to explain them to me using your own words.

Thank you

Here is a file concerning Brit Lit

https://www.sendspace.com/file/utf5dt

[toulay]

Here is a file concerning Brit Lit



https://www.sendspace.com/file/utf5dt


Thank you Sir ath11,but this file is about civilization

[ath111]

Thank you Sir ath11,but this file is about civilization

It's about both civ and lit

[toulay]

It's about both civ and lit

That's right,the file contains literature,but I didn't find the postcolonial one

Thank you

[toulay]

Please Sir ath111

What are the differences between scientific inquiry and philosophical inquiry?

Thank you

[ath111]

The scientific inquiry can be measurable and observable but the philosophical inquiry is abstract

[toulay]

The scientific inquiry can be measurable and observable but the philosophical inquiry is abstract

Thank you so much Sir ath111
Please,are there other differences?

[akiamasan]

Good evening very body please who can tell me the universities that oppened for master degree speciality Applied linguistics ?
Thank you in advance.

[MGS2015]

hello sir , i'll be a 3rd year student next year nchallah , we have modules like sociolinguistics , psychopédagogie , psycholinguistics , american civilization do you have any lectures or idea or even advice for me . thanks

[Narcisse95]

Salam alikum & saha ramdankom ,
This page helped me alot , I want to thank every single member that gave aid in this page , Inchallah yjazikom =)))

[abdelhadi78]

Hi everyone ; I have a new BAC ; and I chose English ; I haven't any idea about English studing at University ; please help me and give me some informations about it .. thanks

[abdelhadi78]

please ; I'm waiting

[rafika rafika]

Asalamou 3aleykoum sisters nd brothers am new here i hope that i get some help to what i need:mh92:

[Narcisse95]

Hi everyone ; I have a new BAC ; and I chose English ; I haven't any idea about English studing at University ; please help me and give me some informations about it .. thanks

please ; I'm waiting

Asalamou 3aleykoum sisters nd brothers am new here i hope that i get some help to what i need:mh92:

Hello guys , i'm a second year english student , if u have any questions i'm here :)
where r you guys going to study ?

[yahyounti]

:dj_17: i am really very happy for finding this page cz it will help us in our studies due to youuuuur help teachers and even students... so what i want to say is...
i am searching for a good and easy theme for my research paper 3rd year, in american lieterature
thnks:19:

[Karim-Rap-4-Life]

:dj_17: i am really very happy for finding this page cz it will help us in our studies due to youuuuur help teachers and even students... so what i want to say is...
i am searching for a good and easy theme for my research paper 3rd year, in american lieterature
thnks:19:

ello
Try the American Dream too many novels are written with perspective of this most wanted concept and most spread concept the american dream

[toulay]

Hello Sir ath111

please,I need your help

Thank you

[ath111]

Hello Sir ath111

please,I need your help

Thank you

Hello Toulay

Sorry, I didn't pay attention to your post

How can I help you?

[toulay]

Hello Toulay

Sorry, I didn't pay attention to your post

How can I help you?

Hello again
It's ok,no problem
Could you please provide me with another theme for my thesis?
Thank you

[ath111]

Hello again
It's ok,no problem
Could you please provide me with another theme for my thesis?
Thank you

What do you think of 9/11 and its consequences on the Arabic minority in the USA?

[toulay]

What do you think of 9/11 and its consequences on the Arabic minority in the USA?

You know,I have no idea
I'm really lost.It's difficult to choose
Please,do you know something about lit?

[ath111]

You know,I have no idea
I'm really lost.It's difficult to choose
Please,do you know something about lit?

The net is full of information about the topic , sister

just surf

[toulay]

The net is full of information about the topic , sister

just surf


Thank you Sir ath111

[الضب الزين]

Hello there ! How are you ?
First of all , thank you a lot and may Allah bless you and your parents .
I would like to know what are the modules of Third Year LMD English of course , sepeciality of Didactics .

Thank you again .

[هاجر19]

hellow guys :)
i wish that you okii !!
plzzz i need your help in my uestion in the module of Linguistic which is: what is the relationship between the linguistic and the behaviour ??
plzzzz i need it at Sunday

[toulay]

hellow guys :)
i wish that you okii !!
plzzz i need your help in my uestion in the module of Linguistic which is: what is the relationship between the linguistic and the behaviour ??
plzzzz i need it at Sunday

Hello
According to my understanding,it's about the theories of 1st l a n g u a g e acquisition
Well,there are 2 theories of 1st l a n g u a g e acquisition.We have Behaviorist theory (it is introduced by Skinner) and we have The nativistic theory(it is introduced by Chomsky)

Now,you are concerned with the behaviorist theory

As you know,linguistics is the scientific study of l a n g u a g e.So,,we are going to relate the acquisition of 1st l a n g u a g e with behavior

The behaviorist theory believes that “infants learn oral l a n g u a g e from other human role models through a process involving imitation, rewards, and practice.

The child is born without any linguistic knowledge, so he will acquire his first l a n g u a g e from
the environment, through stimulus response, repeating, habit formation, conditioning and
reinforcement.

Good luck

[هاجر19]

Hello
According to my understanding,it's about the theories of 1st l a n g u a g e acquisition
Well,there are 2 theories of 1st l a n g u a g e acquisition.We have Behaviorist theory (it is introduced by Skinner) and we have The nativistic theory(it is introduced by Chomsky)

Now,you are concerned with the behaviorist theory

Sorry.I'm going to carry on later nchallah


Thank youu very much my sister :*

[toulay]

Thank youu very much my sister :*
You're welcome
Done
Good luck

[Farahcr7]

Peace upon u all
First of all Thanks for the great idea :)
I can help u guys with some Elements of literature giving by my teacher , I'm a 3rd year student
N plz I need help in didactics , our teacher gave us a reserch to do : we have to imagine ourselfs as teacher n doing the planing of one file ( we can choose any level we want ) so if someone can help me in that
PS : Im not asking for the whole work just how to start n some guid n Thanks a lot .


Now back to literature :
ELEMENTS OF LITERATURE
All fiction is based on conflict and this conflict is presented in a structured format called PLOT.
There are a number of different elements to a plot. They include:
Exposition
The introductory material which gives the setting, creates the tone, presents the characters,
and presents other facts necessary to understanding the story.
Foreshadowing
The use of hints or clues to suggest what will happen later in the story.
Inciting Force
The event or character that triggers the conflict.
Conflict
The essence of fiction. It creates plot. The conflicts we encounter can usually be identified as
one of four kinds. (Man versus…Man, Nature, Society, or Self)
Rising Action
A series of events that builds from the conflict. It begins with the i nciting force and ends with
the climax.
Crisis
The conflict reaches a turning point. At this point the opposing forces in the story meet and the
conflict becomes most intense. The crisis occurs before or at the same time as the climax.
Climax
The climax is the result of the crisis. It is the high point of the story for the reader. Frequently, it
is the moment of the highest interest and greatest emotion. The point at which the outcome of
the conflict can be predicted.
Falling Action
The events after the climax which close the story.
Resolution (Denouement)
Rounds out and concludes the action.
CHARACTERIZATION
MAJOR CHARACTERS
Almost always round or three-dimensional characters. They have good and bad qualities. Their
goals, ambitions and values change. A round character changes as a result of what happens to
him or her. A character who changes inside as a result of what happens to him is referred to in
literature as a DYNAMIC character. A dynamic character grows or progresses to a higher level of
understanding in the course of the story.
Protagonist
The main character in the
story
Antagonist
The character or force
that opposes the
protagonist.
Foil
A character who
provides a contrast to
the protagonist.
MINOR CHARACTERS
Almost always flat or two-dimensional characters. They have only one or two striking qualities.
Their predominant quality is not balanced by an opposite quality. They are usually all good or all
bad. Such characters can be interesting or amusing in their own right, but they lack depth. Flat
characters are sometimes referred to as STATIC characters because they do not change in the
course of the story.
POINT OF VIEW
First Person
The narrator is a character in the story who can reveal only personal thoughts and feelings and
what he or she sees and is told by other characters. He can’t tell us thoughts of other
characters.
Third-Person Objective
The narrator is an outsider who can report only what he or she sees and hears. This narrator
can tell us what is happening, but he can’t tell us the thoughts of the characters.
Third-Person Limited
The narrator is an outsider who sees into the mind of one of the characters.
Omniscient
The narrator is an all-knowing outsider who can enter the minds of more than one of t he
characters.
CONFLICT
Conflict is the essence of fiction. It creates plot. The conflicts we encounter can usually be
identified as one of four kinds.
Man versus Man
Conflict that pits one person against another.
Man versus Nature
A run-in with the forces of nature. On the one hand, it expresses the insignificance of a single
human life in the cosmic scheme of things. On the other hand, it tests the limits of a person’s
strength and will to live.
Man versus Society
The values and customs by which ev eryone else lives are being challenged. The character may
come to an untimely end as a result of his or her own convictions. The character may, on the
other hand, bring others around to a sympathetic point of view, or it may be decided that
society was right after all.
Man versus Self
Internal conflict. Not all conflict involves other people. Sometimes people are their own worst
enemies. An internal conflict is a good test of a character’s values. Does he give in to
temptation or rise above it? Does he dema nd the most from himself or settle for something
less? Does he even bother to struggle? The internal conflicts of a character and how they are
resolved are good clues to the character’s inner strength.
Often, more than one kind of conflict is taking place at the same time. In every case, however,
the existence of conflict enhances the reader’s understanding of a character and creates the
suspense and interest that make you want to continue reading.
FORESHADOWING
An author’s use of hints or clues to suggest events that will occur later in the story. Not all
foreshadowing is obvious. Frequently, future events are merely hinted at through dialogue,
description, or the attitudes and reactions of the characte rs.
Foreshadowing frequently serves two purposes. It builds suspense by raising questions that
encourage the reader to go on and find out more about the event that is being
foreshadowed. Foreshadowing is also a means of making a narrative more believable b y
partially preparing the reader for events which are to follow.
IRONY
Irony is the contrast between what is expected or what appears to be and what actually is.
Verbal Irony
The contrast between what is said and what is actually meant.

[nasserbou]

thank you so much

[Farahcr7]

Hello guys hope that everybody is okey :)
Today I will share with u My personel essay about The Ancient Egyptian Civ :) hope it will helps u

• Ancient Egyptian civilization :
Ancient Egyptian civilization is known as one of the most significant events in history due to its lengthy existence.
It fulfilled vast achievements such as medicine, art and engineering … to understand its significance you need to learn about it’s history .
The Ancient Egyptian civilization started somewhere around 3000 BC in northeast Africa a long the Nile valley . Egyptian culture has been called “the gift of the Nile.” Without the Nile River, Egypt might never have existed.The lands along the Nile were rich enough to be farmed, so over time the people started to grow crops.They found ways to store the yearly floodwaters and then use them for the dry seasons. The farmers learned to lift water out of the Nile or wells and send it across the fields through a system of canals.
The Nile brought other gifts, too. One gift was transportation. Boats carried goods and people from one part of Egypt to another.Transportation made trade profitable. The Nile also provided natural resources. Egyptians used its mud to make pottery and bricks.
The egyptians were a unified nation under the role of single king called The pharaoh .The pharaoh’s government assured both internal and external peace . As a consequence, Egyptians were pround to belonging to the land. This feeling of pied added much to ther unification.They become so found of the pharaoh that they worshipped him as a god king .
Religion played a great role in the daily life of the Egyptians,they had a strong belief in the afterlife led them to build pyramids as tombs for their pharaohs believing the spirt of the pharaoh would survive only if his body were preserved.
The effort and the resources needed to build the pyramids were so great. The later pharaoh were buried , not in pyramids , but in rock tombs. Yet the *******s of the tombs remained exaggerated as before.
In 1922 Howard Carter discovered the tomb of Tutankhamun proved to contain the most incredible burial treasure ever found . with all this treasure going into the ground instead of being invested , it was no surprise that eventually the pharaohs proved to be the major cause behind the decline and fall of ancient egyptian economy , and therefore, of its civilization.

[angel21]

hello :mh31:everyone im a second year english student any one here second year also maybe could hellp each other:19::19:

[ملكة الإحساس 94]

hello everybody
i wonder if there are students from 3rd year bachlor degree.i need the modules they learn in this year and in which university?
thank you

[ZINA 98]

Teacher
Could you give your email because I want ask you about the english bac exam and I want you help me to developp my ******** after the exam*if there is no problem*
Please help me
Iam so sorry about my bad ********

[rain]

Hello,
Thank you so much for this useful courses.Allah bless you:)

could anyone tell me how can I download from 4shared .or are there mediafire links?

[rain]

Hello,
Thank you so much for this useful courses.Allah bless you:)

could anyone tell me how can I download from 4shared .or are there mediafire links?

Pleaaaaaaaaaaaaaaase:sdf:
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[yassineali]

thank you friend

[sousou_14]

I have a question . why the word "********" is forbidden in the forum ?????,, :/

[ismail007]

pleaaas helpp me with the british history of first year licens ---- the lesssons is begin from celts and ends with the normans ....... :sdf:

[nesrinechaimaa]

hello , please help me i need a sample of training report at secondary school :sdf:

[nesrinechaimaa]

I need a sample of training report at secondary school please help me :sdf: